What is Genetics.

 WHAT IS GENETICS

Genetics is the study of heredity. Heredity is a biological process where a parent passes certain genes onto their children or offspring. Every child inherits genes from both of their biological parents and these genes in turn express specific traits. Some of these traits may be physical for example hair and eye color and skin color etc. On the other hand some genes may also carry the risk of certain diseases and disorders that may pass on from parents to their offspring.

Genes in the cell

The genetic information lies within the cell nucleus of each living cell in the body. The information can be considered to be retained in a book for example. Part of this book with the genetic information comes from the father while the other part comes from the mother.

Chromosomes

The genes lie within the chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs of these small thread-like structures in the nucleus of their cells. 23 or half of the total 46 comes from the mother while the other 23 comes from the father.

The chromosomes contain genes just like pages of a book. Some chromosomes may carry thousands of important genes while some may carry only a few. The chromosomes, and therefore the genes, are made up of the chemical substance called DNA (DeoxyriboNucleic Acid). The chromosomes are very long thin strands of DNA, coiled up tightly.

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• DNA
• RNA
• ATP
• HTP
• Heart beat
• Pulse rate

At one point along their length, each chromosome has a constriction, called the centromere. The centromere divides the chromosomes into two ‘arms’: a long arm and a short arm. Chromosomes are numbered from 1 to 22 and these are common for both sexes and called autosomes. There are also two chromosomes that have been given the letters X and Y and termed sex chromosomes. The X chromosome is much larger than the Y chromosome.

Chemical bases

The genes are further made up of unique codes of chemical bases comprising of A, T, C and G (Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine and Guanine). These chemical bases make up combinations with permutations and combinations. These are akin to the words on a page.

These chemical bases are part of the DNA. The words when stringed together act as the blueprints that tells the cells of the body when and how to grow, mature and perform various functions. With age the genes may be affected and may develop faults and damages due to environmental and endogenous toxins.

Males and females

Women have 46 chromosomes (44 autosomes plus two copies of the X chromosome) in their body cells. They have half of this or 22 autosomes plus an X chromosome in their egg cells.

Men have 46 chromosomes (44 autosomes plus an X and a Y chromosome) in their body cells and have half of these 22 autosomes plus an X or Y chromosome in their sperm cells.

When the egg joins with the sperm, the resultant baby has 46 chromosomes (with either an XX in a female baby or XY in a male baby).

Genes and genetics

Each gene is a piece of genetic information. All the DNA in the cell makes up for the human genome. There are about 20,000 genes located on one of the 23 chromosome pairs found in the nucleus.

To date, about 12,800 genes have been mapped to specific locations (loci) on each of the chromosomes. This database was begun as part of the Human Genome Project. The project was officially completed in April 2003 but the exact number of genes in the human genome is still unknown.

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What is CANCER.

                    WHAT IS CANCER

A coronal CT scan showing a malignant mesothelioma Legend: → tumor ←, ✱ central pleural effusion, 1 & 3 lungs, 2 spine, 4 ribs, 5 aorta, 6 spleen, 7 & 8 kidneys, 9 liver.
Pronunciation	/ˈkænsər/ ( listen)
Specialty	Oncology
Symptoms	Lump, abnormal bleeding, prolonged cough, unexplained weight loss, change in bowel movements[1]
Causes	Tobacco, obesity, poor diet, lack of physical activity, excessive alcohol, certain infections[2][3]
Treatment	Radiation therapy, surgery, chemotherapy, and targeted therapy.[2][4]
Prognosis	Average five year survival 66% (USA)[5]
Frequency	90.5 million (2015)[6]
Deaths	8.8 million (2015)[7

A coronal CT scan showing a malignant mesothelioma
Legend: → tumor ←, ✱ central pleural effusion, 1 & 3 lungs, 2 spine, 4 ribs, 5 aorta, 6 spleen, 7 & 8 kidneys, 9 liver.

• /ˈkænsər/ ( listen)

Oncology

Lump, abnormal bleeding, prolonged cough, unexplained weight loss, change in bowel movements^[1]

Tobacco, obesity, poor diet, lack of physical activity, excessive alcohol, certain infections^[2][3]

Radiation therapy, surgery, chemotherapy, and targeted therapy.^[2][4]

Average five year survival 66% (USA)^[5]

90.5 million (2015)^[6]

8.8 million (2015)^[7

Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. Not all tumors are cancerous; benign tumors do not spread to other parts of the body. Possible signs and symptomsinclude a lump, abnormal bleeding, prolonged cough, unexplained weight loss, and a change in bowel movements. While these symptoms may indicate cancer, they may have other causes. Over 100 types of cancers affect humans.

Tobacco use is the cause of about 22% of cancer deaths. Another 10% is due to obesity, poor diet, lack of physical activity, and excessive drinking of alcohol.^[2][9][10] Other factors include certain infections, exposure to ionizing radiation and environmental pollutants. In the developing world nearly 20% of cancers are due to infections such as hepatitis B, hepatitis Cand human papillomavirus infection. These factors act, at least partly, by changing the genes of a cell. Typically many genetic changes are required before cancer develops. Approximately 5–10% of cancers are due to inherited genetic defects from a person's parents. Cancer can be detected by certain signs and symptoms or screening tests. It is then typically further investigated by medical imaging and confirmed by biopsy.

Many cancers can be prevented by not smoking, maintaining a healthy weight, not drinking too much alcohol, eating plenty of vegetables, fruits and whole grains, vaccination against certain infectious diseases, not eating too much processed and red meat, and avoiding too much sunlight exposure. Early detection through screening is useful for cervical and colorectal cancer. The benefits of screening in breast cancer are controversial. Cancer is often treated with some combination of radiation therapy, surgery, chemotherapy, and targeted therapy. Pain and symptom management are an important part of care. Palliative care is particularly important in people with advanced disease. The chance of survival depends on the type of cancer and extent of disease at the start of treatment. In children under 15 at diagnosis the five-year survival rate in the developed world is on average 80%. For cancer in the United States the average five-year survival rate is 66%.

In 2015 about 90.5 million people had cancer. About 14.1 million new cases occur a year (not including skin cancer other than melanoma). It caused about 8.8 million deaths (15.7%) of human deaths. The most common types of cancer in males are lung cancer, prostate cancer, colorectal cancer and stomach cancer. In females, the most common types are breast cancer, colorectal cancer, lung cancer and cervical cancer. If skin cancer other than melanoma were included in total new cancers each year it would account for around 40% of cases. In children, acute lymphoblastic leukemia and brain tumors are most common except in Africa where non-Hodgkin lymphoma occurs more often. In 2012, about 165,000 children under 15 years of age were diagnosed with cancer. The risk of cancer increases significantly with age and many cancers occur more commonly in developed countries. Rates are increasing as more people live to an old age and as lifestyle changes occur in the developing world.The financial costs of cancer were estimated at $1.16 trillion USD per year as of 2010.

          SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

When cancer begins, it produces no symptoms. Signs and symptoms appear as the mass grows or ulcerates. The findings that result depend on the cancer's type and location. Few symptoms are specific. Many frequently occur in individuals who have other conditions. Cancer is a "great imitator". Thus, it is common for people diagnosed with cancer to have been treated for other diseases, which were hypothesized to be causing their symptoms.

People may become anxious or depressed post-diagnosis. The risk of suicide in people with cancer is approximately double

CAUSES

Malignant_neoplasms_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg Deaths from Malignant neoplasms in 2012 per million persons. Statistics from WHO, grouped by deciles    135-367    368-443    444-521    522-588    589-736    737-968    969-1,567    1,568-2,085    2,086-2,567    2,568-3,320 The following groupings/assumptions were made: France includes the overseas departments as well as overseas collectivities. The United Kingdom includes the Crown dependencies as well as the overseas territories. The United States of America includes the insular areas. The Netherlands includes Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles. Denmark includes Greenland and the Faroe islands.

The majority of cancers, some 90–95% of cases, are due to genetic mutations from environmental factors.^[3] The remaining 5–10% are due to inherited genetics.^[3] Environmental, as used by cancer researchers, means any cause that is not inherited genetically, such as lifestyle, economic and behavioral factors and not merely pollution.^[31] Common environmental factors that contribute to cancer death include tobacco (25–30%), diet and obesity (30–35%), infections (15–20%), radiation (both ionizing and non-ionizing, up to 10%), stress, lack of physical activity and pollution.^[3]

It is not generally possible to prove what caused a particular cancer because the various causes do not have specific fingerprints. For example, if a person who uses tobacco heavily develops lung cancer, then it was probably caused by the tobacco use, but since everyone has a small chance of developing lung cancer as a result of air pollution or radiation, the cancer may have developed for one of those reasons. Excepting the rare transmissions that occur with pregnancies and occasional organ donors, cancer is generally not a transmissible disease.

DIAGNOSIS

Beschreibung: Konventionelles Röntgenbild des Thorax (der Lunge) mit rundlicher Verdichtung in der linken Lunge Quelle: selbst erstellt --de:Benutzer:Lange123 17:18, 11. Nov. 2004 (CEST)

Most cancers are initially recognized either because of the appearance of signs or symptoms or through screening. Neither of these leads to a definitive diagnosis, which requires the examination of a tissue sample by a pathologist. People with suspected cancer are investigated with medical tests. These commonly include blood tests, X-rays, CT scans and endoscopy.

The tissue diagnosis from the biopsy indicates the type of cell that is proliferating, its histological grade, genetic abnormalities and other features. Together, this information is useful to evaluate the prognosis and to choose the best treatment.

Cytogenetics and immunohistochemistry are other types of tissue tests. These tests provide information about molecular changes (such as mutations, fusion genes and numerical chromosome changes) and may thus also indicate the prognosis and best treatment.

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How to measure PULSE RATE.

                          PULSE MEASUREMENT

Your pulse is the rate at which your heart beats. Your pulse is usually called your heart rate, which is the number of times your heart beats each minute (bpm). But the rhythm and strength of the heartbeat can also be noted, as well as whether the blood vessel feels hard or soft. Changes in your heart rate or rhythm, a weak pulse, or a hard blood vessel may be caused by heart disease or another problem.

As your heart pumps blood through your body, you can feel a pulsing in some of the blood vessels close to the skin's surface, such as in your wrist, neck, or upper arm. Counting your pulse rate is a simple way to find out how fast your heart is beating.

Your doctor will usually check your pulse during a physical examination or in an emergency, but you can easily learn to check your own pulse .You can check your pulse the first thing in the morning, just after you wake up but before you get out of bed. This is called a resting pulse. Some people like to check their pulse before and after they exercise.

You check your pulse rate by counting the beats in a set period of time (at least 15 to 20 seconds) and multiplying that number to get the number of beats per minute. Your pulse changes from minute to minute. It will be faster when you exercise, have a fever, or are under stress. It will be slower when you are resting.

WHY IT IS DONE

Your pulse is checked to:

• See how well the heart is working. In an emergency situation, your pulse rate can help find out if the heart is pumping enough blood.
• Help find the cause of symptoms, such as an irregular or rapid heartbeat (palpitations), dizziness, fainting, chest pain, or shortness of breath.
• Check for blood flow after an injury or when a blood vessel may be blocked.
• Check on medicines or diseases that cause a slow heart rate. Your doctor may ask you to check your pulse every day if you have heart disease or if you are taking certain medicines that can slow your heart rate, such as digoxin or beta-blockers (such as atenolol or propranolol).
• Check your general health and fitness level. Checking your pulse rate at rest, during exercise, or immediately after vigorous exercise can give you important information about your overall fitness level.

HOW TO PREPARE

All you need to check your pulse is a watch with a second hand or a digital stop watch. Find a quiet place, where you can sit down and are not distracted when you are learning to check your pulse.

HOW IT IS DONE

You can measure your pulse rate anywhere an artery comes close to the skin, such as in your wrist or neck , temple area, groin, behind the knee, or top of your foot.

You can easily check your pulse on the inside of your wrist, below your thumb.

• Gently place 2 fingers of your other hand on this artery.
• Do not use your thumb because it has its own pulse that you may feel.
• Count the beats for 30 seconds; then double the result to get the number of beats per minute.

You can also check your pulse in the carotid artery. This is located in your neck, on either side of your windpipe. Be careful when checking your pulse in this location, especially if you are older than 65. If you press too hard, you may become lightheaded and fall.

You can buy an electronic pulse meter to automatically check your pulse in your finger, wrist, or chest. These devices are helpful if you have trouble measuring your pulse or if you wish to check your pulse while you exercise.

HOW IT FEALS

Checking your pulse should not cause pain.

RISKS

Checking your pulse should not cause problems. Be careful when checking your pulse in your neck, especially if you are older than 65. If you press too hard, you may become lightheaded and fall.

Call your doctor if you have any of the following symptoms:

• An irregular or rapid heartbeat (palpitations). Palpitations can be persistent or may come and go (episodic).
• Chest pain
• Dizziness
• Fainting
• Lightheadedness
• Shortness of breath

Talk to your doctor if you have a fast heart rate, many skipped or extra beats, or if the blood vessel where you check your pulse feels hard.

RESULTS

 Your pulse is the rate at which your heart beats. Your pulse is usually called your heart rate, which is the number of times your heart beats each minute (bpm).








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What is ADP (Adenosine dipohosphate)

ADENOSINE DIPHOSPHATE (ADP), also known as adenosine pyrophosphate (APP), is an important organic compound in metabolismand is essential to the flow of energy in living cells. ADP consists of three important structural components: a sugar backbone attached to adenine and two phosphate groups bonded to the 5 carbon atom of ribose. The diphosphate group of ADP is attachted to the 5’ carbon of the sugar backbone, while the adenosine attaches to the 1’ carbon.ADP can be interconverted to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine monophosphate (AMP). ATP contains one more phosphate group than does ADP. AMP contains one fewer phosphate group. Energy transfer used by all living things is a result of dephosphorylation of ATP by enzymes known as ATPases. The cleavage of a phosphate group from ATP results in the coupling of energy to metabolic reactions and a by-product of ADP.^[1] Being the "molecular unit of currency", ATP is continually being reformed from lower-energy species ADP and AMP. The biosynthesis of ATP is achieved throughout processes such as substrate-level phosphorylation, oxidative phosphorylation, and photophosphorylation, all of which facilitating the addition of a phosphate group to ADP.

Bioenergetics

ADP cycling supplies the energy needed to do work in a biological system, the thermodynamic process of transferring energy from one source to another. There are two types of energy: potential energy and kinetic energy. Potential energy can be thought of as stored energy, or usable energy that is available to do work. Kinetic energy is the energy of an object as a result of its motion. The significance of ATP is in its ability to store potential energy within the phosphate bonds. The energy stored between these bonds can then be transferred to do work. For example, the transfer of energy from ATP to the protein myosin causes a conformational change when connecting to actin during muscle contraction. It takes multiple reactions between myosin and actin to effectively produce one muscle contraction, and, therefore, the availability of large amounts of ATP is required to produce each muscle contraction. For this reason, biological processes have evolved to produce efficient ways to replenishment the potential energy of ATP from ADP.^[2]

Breaking one of ATP’s phosphorus bonds generates approximately 30.5 kilojoules per Mole of ATP (7.3 kcal).ADP can be converted, or powered back to ATP through the process of releasing the chemical energy available in food; in humans, this is constantly performed via aerobic respiration in the mitochondria.^[2] Plants use photosynthetic pathways to convert and store energy from sunlight, also conversion of ADP to ATP. Animals use the energy released in the breakdown of glucose and other molecules to convert ADP to ATP, which can then be used to fuel necessary growth and cell maintenance.

Cellular respiration

Catabolism

The ten-step catabolic pathway of glycolysis is the initial phase of free-energy release in the breakdown of glucose and can be split into two phases, the preparatory phase and payoff phase. ADP and phosphate are needed as precursors to synthesize ATP in the payoff reactions of the TCA cycle and oxidative phosphorylation mechanism.^[4] During the payoff phase of glycolysis, the enzymes phosphoglycerate kinase and pyruvate kinase facilitate the addition of a phosphate group to ADP by way of substrate-level phosphorylation

Glycolysis

Glycolysis is performed by all living organisms and consists of 10 steps. The net reaction for the overall process of glycolysis is:^[6]

Glucose + 2 NAD+ + 2 P_i + 2 ADP → 2 pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 H₂O
Steps 1 and 3 require the input of energy derived from the hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and P_i (inorganic phosphate), whereas steps 7 and 10 require the input of ADP, each yielding ATP.^[7] The enzymes necessary to break down glucose are found in the cytoplasm, the viscous fluid that fills living cells, where the glycolytic reactionstake place.

Mitochondrial ATP synthase complex

During the initial phases of 

glycolysis and the TCA cycle, cofactors such as NAD+ donate and accept electrons^[12] that aid in the electron transport chain's ability to produce a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane.^[13] The ATP synthase complex exists within the mitochondrial membrane (F₀ portion) and protrudes into the matrix (F₁portion). The energy derived as a result of the chemical gradient is then used to synthesize ATP by coupling the reaction of inorganic phosphate to ADP in the active site of the ATP synthase enzyme; the equation for this can be written as ADP + P_i → ATP.

Blood platelet activation

Under normal conditions, small disk-shape platelets circulate in the blood freely and without interaction with one another. ADP is stored in dense bodies inside blood platelets and is released upon platelet activation. ADP interacts with a family of ADP receptors found on platelets (P2Y1, P2Y12, and P2X1), which leads to platelet activation.^[14]

• P2Y1 receptors initiate platelet aggregation and shape change as a result of interactions with ADP.

• P2Y12 receptors further amplify the response to ADP and draw forth the completion of aggregation.

ADP in the blood is converted to adenosine by the action of ecto-ADPases, inhibiting further platelet activation via adenosine receptors.

                                              

                                           

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